Irish Proverbs Free Essays

Studying proverbs from different cultures can help us understand the similarities and differences of other cultures compared to our own. The proverbs of some different cultures can be used to illustrate the differences between cultures. Whether called maxims, cliches, idioms, expressions or sayings, proverbs are small statements of general truths about people’s values and beliefs, which may be applied to common situations. We will write a custom essay sample on Irish Proverbs or any similar topic only for you Order Now Values like ambition, virtue, generosity, patience, etc, are addressed in sayings in almost every culture.Still each culture have proverbs that are unique to it. The saying, â€Å"If you want to know a people, know their proverbs†, illustrates this. From this we can decipher that when it comes to understanding a culture even better, knowing their proverbs are likely to be quite helpful, because most of these proverbs are generated from different aspects of that particular culture. For this paper, I have chosen to take a good look at some Irish proverbs and investigate a bit on each of them with the purpose of trying to find out as to what part of their culture have inspired each of the proverbs.Irish sayings and proverbs were based on the reality of the peoples lives, no more so than in any culture. Before going any further though, it is crucial to have a some idea on the Irish language itself. Irish (Gaeilge) is a Goidelic language, originating in Ireland and historically spoken by the Irish people. Irish is now spoken as a first language but only by a small minority of the Irish population but is also used as a second language by a larger and expanding minority. The first proverb, that will be discussed now, relate to Ireland ’s weather which is usually damp, cold and very windy. Thus, it can be understood as to why so many proverbs were inspired in relation to their chilly weather. One such proverb is, â€Å"Gaoth na scratai Bothair†, which can be translated to, â€Å"The wind of a thousand chills†. This basically means that Ireland’s weather is not only very windy but the wind itself is very cold. Very often the Irish way of saying things seem to be about animals and birds, but in reality they are actually an observation on human characteristics or nature. For example there are many Irish expressions that describe character traits.One such proverb is as follows, â€Å"Breeding will break out in the eyes of a cat†, which means, â€Å"The true nature of somebody’s character is revealed through their eyes†. Some of other examples include, â€Å"One beetle recognizes another† which means that ‘it takes one to know one’ , or, â€Å"As the old cock crows the young cock learns† which means Ã¢â‚¬Ë œthe son always learns from the father’. The Irish people love to drink and enjoy themselves a lot. It has been a part of their culture for a very long time. Thus a lot of proverbs were developed over the years, that features the nature of their drinking.For example, the proverb â€Å"When the drink is in, the sense is out. â€Å", gives us an understanding of how much Irish people love to drink, because as the proverb suggests, once they start drinking they keep on drinking till they are senseless. Other examples related to drinking include, â€Å"When the drink was gone the fun was gone† shows how to the Irish having fun is directly proportional to their drinking habit, or â€Å"It is sweet to drink but bitter to pay for†, again indicates their love for drinking but they are usually not happy with the consequences of to much drinking, etc.When comes to work or job related issues, the Irish have derived many proverbs involving that too, since work is very important to them. For example, the proverb â€Å"A good start is half the work†, which means, when a person starts a job with great enthusiasm and actually starts it well, that person has a good chance of doing the full job well too. Some more examples include, â€Å"A bit of hard work never killed anyone,† which suggests how much the Irish believe in hard work, or, â€Å"A lazy man’s best day is tomorrow†, which is directed towards people who are least interested in work and who just love to be a procrastinator when it comes to any job.The Irish hate this kind of people. The last example that I will highlight in relation to Irish proverbs are proverbs that relate to death. One such example include, â€Å"Death is in front of an old person and at the young person’s back†, which means that when it comes to death it is more evident for an old person than for a young person. Some other related examples include, â€Å"When death comes it will not go away emptyâ € , meaning that nobody can escape death, or â€Å"Many a day we shall rest in clay†, meaning that some day we all have to face death and also accept the fact that then, after our death, we will be surrounded by clay in our graves.Thus, from all the above examples, we can now understand how proverbs can help us to have a general idea about any culture in terms of people’s values and beliefs, about certain topics, which include, virtue, work, people’s character traits, etc. Sharing these proverbs can be one way of learning about other cultures – their similarities and differences compared to our own. Through this sharing we can reinforce these similarities and differences of people everywhere. How to cite Irish Proverbs, Papers

Gandhi 2 Essay Research Paper Mohunduras Ghandi free essay sample

Gandhi 2 Essay, Research Paper Mohunduras Ghandi: His Critical Role in India # 8217 ; s Independence Mohunduras Ghandi was a adult male that the universe idea could neer be. He believed strongly in all things that were good, and to him, there were no two ways about it. Leading the Indian people spiritually and morally, he inspired them to contend for Home Rule in which they achieved. He gave them bravery to contend against Britain, and to work along side of the Muslims. The Congress, supported by Gandhi, and the Muslim League were antonyms but Gandhi insisted that they work along side each other. He tried, and to an extent they did, but the terminal consequence was an independent Pakistan for the Muslim League, and an independent India for the Congress. Mohunduras Gandhi was the nisus force behind India to go an independent state. In 1945, a alteration in the British authorities occurred. The Labour Party took office in England holding a clear bulk over the other parties. This meant that covering with India now could be a precedence but it was hard to convert the Indian Congress Leaders that Britain really wanted to give over control to the Indians. A batch of inquiries remained such as why the alteration now? Besides, since Britain was merely get downing to retrieve from World War II, would this issue merely be pushed aside until their ain personal businesss are looked after? Ghandi was hopeful yet a spot doubting. ( Attenborough ) # 8220 ; Those of us who had been hammering on the doors of the India Office for old ages by had an feeling of a great alteration of attitude. Up to 1945, she had felt that the attitude of official Britain was: of class, we are ready to convey the Congress leaders ( or more likely they would state: The Hindu leaders, including the Congress and your friends Ghandi and Nehru # 8217 ; ) into full partnership anytime ; but you see what happens. They can non hold with the Muslims. Equally long as that goes on, we are bound to go on our rule. # 8217 ; And in unofficial conversation, what they seemed to be stating was: There will neer be understanding so long as we can anticipate. Full self-determination can non be expected for another twenty old ages or more. The present Congress leaders are an impossible batch in any instance. We don # 8217 ; t believe they represent much except as problem shapers. It is far better for the 1000000s of India that British regulation should go on, for se lf-determination could merely convey struggle and inefficiency and mass famishment. So please halt your starry-eyed and foolish idealism about their capacity to regulate themselves. # 8217 ; # 8221 ; ( Alexander 126 ) In February 1946, it was announced that three Cabinet members of Britain # 8217 ; s three major parties would shortly be go forthing to travel to India to negociate a colony. They wanted to see such things like how India was close up after the war and the demands of India # 8217 ; s parties. Reginald Sorensen was one of the members of the deputation. For old ages, Sorensen was the one member in the House of Commons who would plead the Indian Congress position in Parliament. The members of the House of Commons found his positions to be # 8220 ; really extreme. # 8221 ; These members of the deputation appeared to be rather friendly towards the Indians and their hopes. They were merely as Miller 2 good to Jinnah as they were to Ghandi. Their trip helped reassure some but a batch of the Indian patriots were still much excessively doubting to be so easy persuaded. ( Alexander 126 ) On March 15, 1946, Prime Minister Attlee said # 8220 ; India must take what will be her future fundamental law. I hope that the Indian people may elect to stay within the British Commonwealth # 8230 ; . But if she does so elect it must be by her ain free will # 8230 ; . If, on the other manus, she elects for independency, in our position she has a right to make so # 8230 ; . We are really aware of the rights of the minorities, and minorities should be able to populate free from fright. On the other manus, we can non let a minority to put a veto in the progress of the majority. # 8221 ; ( Alexander 128 ) Yet people were still doubting. It sounded better than what Britain normally says but they were traveling to wait and be convinced when the members of the Cabinet arrived and on March 24, 1946 they did. Lord Pethick-Lawrence ( the Secretary State for India ) , Sir Stafford Cripps and A.V. Alexander arrived in India. The trip was expected to merely last a month but alternatively, they stayed for three. They worked really difficult, even maintaining busy through India # 8217 ; s really hot months. Cripps suffered a dislocation which resulted in a hebdomad of reorganizing but so they persevered stayed to complete their work, turn outing that they were serious this clip. ( Alexander 128 ) When the Cabinet Mission arrived they talked to anyone who wanted to be heard and so settled down to speak to Ghandi and Jinnah. Ghandi told the Mission that he wanted the immediate release of political captives and making off with the salt revenue enhancement. This showed that the demands of the hapless were a large concern to him and the party. ( Attenborough ) He told them that Jinnah can organize any authorities he wanted in hopes of maintaining the state integral and avoid separation. Equally good as to assist ease the concerns of the Muslims. The British wondered about the other minority spiritual groups and Gandhi replied that a strong Congress authorities, lead by Jawaharlal Nehru, was determined to do India a secular province. Besides, Muslims were among his closest of friends so, with a authorities led by such a adult male, minority spiritual groups had nil to fear. The British were non persuaded by Gandhi, Congress and Muslim League, an understanding was non reached in their first unit of ammunition of negotiations in April. Another unit of ammunition was organized for May in Simla. ( Brown 44 ) Gandhi rounded up 30 people to be on his staff for the negotiations, something unusual for a adult male who works with the bare lower limit. The negotiations went back and Forth. They would make an understanding and so person would happen a enlistment and things would non be agreed upon. Cabinet Mission emphasized the importance and demand to maintain India united and hence rejected the Muslim League # 8217 ; s demand for separation. The Mission # 8217 ; s declaration for the demand of separation was that # 8220 ; The Union of India, including all the Princely States every bit good as the states, would hold authorization over foreign personal businesss, defense mechanism, and communications, with power to roll up gross for these intents. Next, the state would be divided into three groups ; a north-west group of states, a north-east group and the remainder. In the north-west, the bulk of the population wold be Muslims, and in the north-east Muslims and Hindus would be about equal. Provincial liberty would be forced into a group against its will. Therefore, although Assam, a state with a bulk of Hindus, was provisionally assigned to the north-east group with Bengal, it could make up ones mind to choose out of it and stay with the chief group of peninsular India. Provision was besides made for the acquiring up of a constitution- Miller 3 doing organic structure. The process laid down was as follows. In the first topographic point, the provincial representatives would run into in three subdivisions. These subdivisions would so continue to settle Provincial Fundamental laws and make up ones mind whether any group fundamental law should be set up for those states. This was coupled with a proviso giving the freedom to Provinces to choose out of the group, sometime after the election under the new fundamental law to be framed by bulk of the representatives of the Provinces in the subdivision under the new constitution. # 8221 ; ( Alexander 134 ) Gandhi liked this program at first. He thought it was good that the Cabinet Mission devised something that would allow India reign freely. However, he so changed his head on the program stating that he thinks that alternatively of Province # 8217 ; s holding the freedom, either the Congress leaders or Jinnah and the Muslim League have the power and allow them make up ones mind what lies in India # 8217 ; s hereafter and what powers and freedoms the states would hold. Jinnah said they would non give their answer to the program until the Working Committee comes into session which it would make in 10 yearss. Ten yearss subsequently, a missive came to the Mission and it was the answer from the League saying that they accept the program as a measure towards Pakistan. However, more misinterpretations and non entire understanding led to the trade falling through. Gandhi still wanted Jinnah to organize the authorities but Lord Pethick-Lawrence thought this unrealistic. Lord Pethick-Lawrence and Gandhi seemed unable to understand each other. Lord Pethick-Lawrence thought that every bit long as he was Secretary of State, he could non merely manus over the power to the most popular individual. He was traveling to make it by the constitutional methods. He wanted to move in a manner that would fulfill both the Congress and the League. ( Brown 52 ) Jinnah thought they were being betrayed so he planned a Direct Action Day of protest. This occurred around the center of August in Calcutta, where both faiths were every bit balanced. The consequence was a batch of bloodshed, distributing all the manner to Bengal. Hindus where being driven from their places and some were killed. Gandhi went at that place to seek and halt it believing that T he best attack was to travel from small town to village and speak to the Muslims and Hindus. He persuaded Muslims to halt combat and to get down handling the Hindus as their brothers. He wanted the Hindus to return and reconstruct their places. Jinnah gave Gandhi nil but resistance in this, about like he wanted to maintain the combat traveling. He believed the Muslims and Hindus needed separate states and the killing proved this. He wanted Muslims to hold their ain State of Pakistan and for the minority Hindus to travel where they are a bulk. In the neighbouring state of Bengal, which was a Hindu bulk, the Hindus were butchering the Muslims. ( Alexander 144 ) Ghandi arrived in Noakhali on October 1946 and stayed until March 1947. He started his pilgrims journey from small town to village in January 1947. March 2, 1947, he left for Bihar because intelligence of the slaughters had reached him. Fed up, he announced that he would get down a fast and would non halt until the killing ceased. This fast had an immediate consequence on the violent death but the after-effects were awful. So much that the persuasion of Muslims to return to their places was about impossible. The Muslim League did non desire them to because this was one more measure for them in acquiring Pakistan. ( Brown 57 ) Gandhi told them that he believed that # 8220 ; # 8230 ; India was one state, non two. Hindus and Muslims had lived in the same villages up and down the state for centuries ; they were inextricably mixed up together. And although they lived a distinguishable societal life and barely Miller 4 intermarried # 8230 ; in the small towns they lived on good footings ; public violences were recent # 8230 ; the demand for Pakistan was a strictly political demand, invented by political leaders # 8230 ; . He was determined to win the two communities back to decent neighborliness or dice in the attempt. # 8221 ; ( Alexander 144 ) In Bihar, this was where he became every bit outspoken as of all time. He merely would non accept the Hindu # 8217 ; s account of justification which they said was retaliation for Noakhali. He besides would non accept the Muslims stating that they could neer populate with Hindus once more. He was determined to acquire the Muslims back in their places and peace restored. He did this with considerable sum of success. However, Jinnah did non hold on his terminal. He kept his # 8220 ; direct action # 8221 ; traveling and it spread from one country to another. From 1945-47, things were really tense with Acts of the Apostless of force repeating hebdomad after hebdomad. ( Alexander 145 ) Knowing that things weren # 8217 ; t acquiring better, Prime Minister Attlee announced on February 20, 1947, that the British Government will manus over power to India no subsequently than June 1948. He said he would instead see it travel to one beginning of power but if it had to be divided into states, sobeit. Hearing this, Jinnah went right to work. He had the bulk in Bengal but he wanted the bulk in the about equal Hindu-Muslim rationed Punjab. So he started public violences at that place on the Hindus and Sikhs. The Hindus and Sikhs practiced non-violence so in bend were walked over. This would be the bosom of West Pakistan. ( Attenborough ) To Gandhi # 8217 ; s discouragement, he had another issue to cover with now. Some loyal Hindus wanted to divide and hold merely Hindus. Precisely what the Muslim League wanted except change by reversaling the faith. Gandhi still had to contend for one state against the League, but now against loyal Hindus every bit good. 1947 was a twelvemonth where there was nutrient deficit in India. Some of the British authorities who supported India and Gandhi wanted to provide them with nutrient but Gandhi refused stating that India needs to larn to cover with her ain affairs if they are traveling to be an independent state. # 8220 ; Better, he said, that 1000000s should decease, instead than that India should travel hat in manus to the outside world. # 8221 ; ( Alexander 148 ) Lord Mountbatten, the new and more concerted Secretary of State, thought the Oklahoman the handing over power to India the better. No nutrient could be grown until a new authorities was formed. Lord Mountbatten believed at that clip that India # 8217 ; s integrity could non be saved. Separation seemed inevitable and Nehru # 8217 ; s authorities was besides willing to accept this now. He was tired of holding the Leagues holding his programs. ( Alexander 149 ) Still keeping strong on his beliefs, Gandhi had a conversation between himself and the Congress Socialists. # 8220 ; Ghandi stuck to his strong beliefs to the terminal. The socialists said to him: You think that the British power need non remain on in India for another 13 months? # 8217 ; ( mention to Attlee # 8217 ; s retreat no later than June 1948 ) . Gandhi replied: Quite so. If their connotation is absolutely honest, they should non trouble oneself as to what would go on to the state after than. The state is rather capable of taking attention of itself. They can discontinue with a clear conscience. # 8217 ; Socialists: The Congress leaders have said that the British can non travel off without conveying about a colony between the Congress and the League. # 8217 ; Gandhi: Supposing no understanding can be arrived at between the Congress and the League even after 13 months, would that be a ground for them to remain on in India even after the day of the month? I, hence, say: Let them discontinue now, otherwise their traveling even after Miller 5 13 months will be problematical. # 8217 ; Socialists: But if they go, to whom are they to manus over power? # 8217 ; Gandhi: They can manus over power either to the Muslim League or to the Congress, I do non mind which. If they manus it over to the Congress, the Congress will come to a merely colony with the League. But even if they make it over to the League, the Congress has nil to fear. # 8217 ; # 8221 ; ( Alexander 149 ) He felt so strongly about this that he was willing to allow the Cabinet Mission # 8217 ; s program fold. He wanted them to go forth before the old set day of the month of June 1948, but without stating separation is necessary. The day of the month was moved in front but separation was the consequence. Everyone accepted, even Congress, although it was with great reluctance. The one status by Congress was in West Bengal where Hindu was a bulk and in East Punjab where Sikhs and Hindus were in a bulk every bit good, they must remain with India. They did this because of the League # 8217 ; s insisting that where the bulk was belonged to either side. Jinnah approved of this. ( Brown 66 ) All of these negotiations, though, were taking Gandhi from what he called his existent work ; to bridge the spread among Hindus and Muslims. Gandhi was doing his manner to Noakhali to carry through a promise to decrease the frights of the Hindus there on Independence Day, August 15. On his manner, Suhrawaray, Chief Minister of Bengal came to speak to Gandhi. He said if he stayed in Calcutta with him, they could accomplish absolute peace. Gandhi made a promise to the Hindus in Noakhali and that could non be broken unless understandings were made. Suhrawaray got the of import people of the Muslim League to state there would be no force in Noakhali so Gandhi stayed in Calcutta. ( Their program of action was to travel and speak to Hindus and remain at that place until they invited the Muslims back. Then they would travel to a different portion of the metropolis and talk to the Muslims and remain at that place until they invited the Hindus back. ( Alexander 153 ) Their topographic point o f stay was in an old dirty sign of the zodiac in Beliaghata. It happened that it used to belong to a Muslim household so the Hindus instantly were enraged. Hindus met with Gandhi and talked all dark on August, 13. Not much was reached but it was late and Gandhi dismissed them, holding them come back in the forenoon. On their return, they had a wholly different head set which was the understanding for peace. This was all one twenty-four hours off from Independence Day. ( Attenborough ) While Gandhi was outside giving his supplications to the people, intelligence was delivered to him that in another portion of the metropolis comrademanship among Hindus and Muslims was taking portion as they prepared for Independence Day. Gandhi and peace prevailed. That trip is known as the # 8220 ; miracle of Calcutta. # 8221 ; ( Brown 72 ) On Independence Day, Gandhi celebrated in his ain manner which was another fast. He purified himself and rejoiced in it. He neer did acquire his want of retaining the integrity of India, but his power and feelings led the land back to peaceableness once more. ( Attenborough ) # 8220 ; An oculus for an oculus will stop up doing the whole universe blind. # 8221 ; ( Attenborough ) That is what Gandhi would state about force and contending back. He was a really good adult male and he accomplished more in one life-time than most could make in several. He inspired the Indians to contend for their right of regulating themselves. He fought hard to seek and work with the Muslim League but peace was in hazard and everyone was ready to accept India # 8217 ; s separation. He was ever at work, seeking to do this chilling universe a better topographic point to be. He did acquire his dream of an independent India because he was the nisus force behind the whole thing. Plants Cited Alexander, Horace. Gandhi Through Western Eyes. New York: Asia Publishing House, 1969. Brown, Judith M. Gandhi: Prisoner of Hope. New Haven and London: Yale University, 1989. Ghandi Dir. Richard Attenborough. With Ben Kingsley. Columbia Pictures, 1974.

The Role of Flexibility in the Australian Context

Introduction The following essay is on the need for flexibility of labour in the Australian context. This essay will discuss the role of flexibility in the Australian context. There will be evaluation of the advantages and disadvantages of flexible work arrangements from the perspective of the employer as well as employee. The essay will look into the Equal employment Act in Australia, and its role in the flexible work conditions. The essay will also include the perspective of the work conditions in the country.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Role of Flexibility in the Australian Context specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Background Flexibility of work is a major labour relation issue that has effect on both the labour and the management. Flexibility comes from the need for the management to adjust with the dynamism of the labour market that results from the development of the company and the way in which empl oyees want to work. The survey results released by the Australian Bureau of statistics show that fifty percent of the workers do not have choice over their work start time and finish time (Fagan, 2009). Twenty eight per cent of the employees had incomes that varied from one pay period to the next. Thirty-seven percent had hours that varied per week and they had to stay alert to work on call. This form of uncertainty and unpredictability of work makes it necessary for both the employer and the employees to have flexible working mentality to allow them work harmoniously. Currently, 1.4 million workers in Australia work in shifts, which are organized by the management. This especially applies to the mining industry and service industries such as hotels (Fagan, 2009). Flexible work conditions take the pluralist approach of industrial relations where the view recognizes that entities in an industry both the employee and the employer are powerful with different goals and objectives. The m anagement role is to coordinate and persuade employees to work whereas the labour unions are the legitimate representatives of employees and they represent them through collective bargaining. With this perspective employees are able to negotiate the number of hours collectively as well as the working conditions (Hyman, 1975). However, with most of the companies employing non-unionized workers to meet their labour needs and the employees opting for flexible rather than fixed working conditions it is becoming necessary to institute mechanisms to tackle flexibility of work to suit both the employer and the employee. The government of Australia instituted Equal Employment Act that spell out flexible work arrangements that are legally recognized. They help the employees to choose arrangement such as the number of hours to work, modes of work and when to enjoy benefits such as holidays (Atkinson Meager, 1986).Advertising Looking for essay on labor law? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The most popular kind of work arrangements is the part time work or the job sharing where workers work part time or they share the work with another person such that each work two days a week. The other common arrangement is the shifts, where employees work in shifts especially in the mining industry where the work may go on for twenty-four hours every day. The other popular arrangement is the telecommuting where workers may perform some of their duties away from office or at home such as making calls. The other work arrangements is the compressed work hours where an employee may work continuously for forty hours in five days a week rather than in two weeks (Bhave Budd, 2008). Numerical flexibility The notion of numerical flexibility is becoming common than it was before as the modern worker is no longer encouraged to work through adjustments in labour prices. They are encouraged by the working conditions and terms of work. With the functioning markets of goods and services, company must also adapt to the high season and low demands on labour. When the company is in low season, it may lay off some workers due to reduced tasks and responsibilities. During the high season, the company may have to bring in external workers or hire additional labour to meet the demand of the products or services (Befort Budd, 2009). Numerical flexibility has two aspects with the first one being external flexibility. This is where the company outsource workers when it is in need of extra labour. This is through short-term contractual workers who work for a given season. The second aspect of numerical flexibility involves adjustment in the number of hours or days worked by the employees such that they may work for extra hours or overtime in high seasons and few hours during low seasons (Morrell, 2011). The company applying the internal numerical flexibility usually adjusts the labour within the company such that it does not lay off workers or hire extra workers from outside. The fewer hours done in low season compensate the additional hours done during the high season. This type of numerical flexibility applies in many companies, as they avoid repeated layoffs and recruiting procedures that are tedious and expensive. The internal numerical flexibility is also considered advantageous to the employees due to the job security and the employee does not have to keep on changing jobs (Budd, 2004).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Role of Flexibility in the Australian Context specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Functional flexibility This refers to the extent in which the employee can transfer to another work. It is how the employees can perform different tasks within the company. Functional flexibility refers to the number of tasks an employee can engage in the organisation. In functional flexibility when there is high season, the employee may do additional tasks. For instance, an employee may work as a technician and a receptionist in the company, which allows flexibility within the organisation. It involves having the labour force appropriately positioned to use different technologies. However, for this to be done the company must focus its resources on training the employees to perform different tasks (Fagan, 2009). Role of flexibility in Australian context With the Australian Equal Employment opportunity Act of 1984, the companies had to adjust their regulations and layoff activities as the law discriminated against layoffs based on conditions such as pregnancy or sickness. The companies had to adjust their schedules to fit the need of workers such as maternity leaves, parental leave and other needs of the workers. The first role played by the work arrangement flexibility is reducing employee absenteeism. The absenteeism was usually because of stresses and sickness that made workers redundant. However, with flexib ility the employees can adjust their work to fit them such that they can balance their work and other activities (Reilly, 2001). Flexibility in work arrangements has enhanced morale and job satisfaction resulting to increased and improved efficiency in the work. When working hours fit the employees, it results in increased motivation to work. With increased morale, the productivity goes high and the company benefits from increased revenue (Wallace, 2003). With the increased morale resulting from the increased productivity, the employees are more energetic and creative. This is because they have the choice to work during the time when they are most productive and effective in the job. The flexibility allows the employees to concentrate on the work they are doing unlike in scenarios where time of working is inflexible and they are unable to attend other issues thereby affecting productivity as well as morale. With the increased productivity, the organisation and the employee benefit ( Hyman, 1975).Advertising Looking for essay on labor law? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The flexibility in work arrangements reduces work stress and burn out because the flexibility allows the employee to relax and recuperate energies unlike in scenarios where the work timelines are fixed and do not have time for employee to relax (Kaufman, 2004). The other contribution of the work flexibility is that it has reduced the role and the influence of labour organisations. This is because with the numerical flexibility where workers work on contract, it is very hard for the workers join unions. Most of the contracts state that they do not want anyone who is unionised. This challenge makes most of the workers who work on contact basis not to be members of labour unions. Functional flexibility allows the employees to start the work in many aspects of the job and cannot complain of overworking, as it is part of the in-house arrangements to shift the working of the employees (Salamon, 2000). The companies in Australia on the other hand have benefited from the development of the work and they can now develop their work as well as increase their responsibilities on the development of the company. The companies have experienced low levels of industrial actions such as low employee turnover and strikes. This is because of the flexible work arrangement measures that suit both the employer and the employee (Webb Webb, 1897). Employer’s perspective on the flexibility â€Å" The work arrangements are advantageous to the employees as they result in increased productivity. The productivity comes from the need to reduce stress in the workplace and motivation that comes from working when it is appropriate (Nichols, 1997). The other advantage of the work arrangements procedures is that it reduces costs such as hiring and recruiting when the company is in need of extra labour as well as freeing the company from compensation obligations when an employee is fired. This is because the employees’ can work under flexible work arrangements offering the employe e a chance to determine the appropriate time of work such that the employer can hire workers to work during the time when the labour is needed most. This prevents the employer from paying redundant workers (Kaufman, 2004). The work arrangement flexibility has reduced the influence and the bargaining power of the trade unions significantly such that they cannot be influential as they were previously. With reduced bargaining power, the employers can negotiate better terms with the employees. Most of the companies that adopt numerical flexibility employ workers on short-term contracts, which make it hard for the employees to unionise. The flexible work conditions can be attributed to the reduced levels of strikes and industrial actions in the companies (Kelly, 1998). The work arrangements are costly to the company especially in instances where the company has to outsource to meet the demand for labour. It is also disadvantageous to the company as it has to retrain the staff on the vari ous aspects of the work to make them flexible such that they are deployable to do different tasks and duties (Mullins, 2005). The flexibility especially the numerical flexibility where the company employs on short term contracts result in reduced employee loyalty as many employees are influenced by job security and they may not be loyal to the companies that do not offer job security to them (Salamon, 2000). The other aspect of management is that the work arrangement involves the management relinquishing its supervisory powers. This is because some of the arrangements such as telecommuting where the employees work from home or away from the office make it hard for the employer to supervise them. The employer’s must consider whether an employee is appropriate to the work arrangement as individuals who need close supervision in their work cannot be fit for telecommuting arrangements (Nichols, 1997). Employee’s perspective The work arrangement flexibility is disadvantageo us to the employees because it enables them to live a balanced life where they manage family and work. This is an important achievement for many people to balance their attention to both the work and the family (Reilly, 2001). The other advantage is that it enables the employees to work at the optimum time, and relax when tired. It allows the employees to choose when to go for holidays and when not to. With this kind of flexibility, the employees manage to be productive in their work and achieve results (Budd, 2004). The arrangements are however disadvantageous to most of the employees because they involve short term jobs that end after the season is over, which makes the employees insecure (Wallace, 2003). The other disadvantage is that the work arrangements makes collective bargaining less effective as the employee can only negotiate conditions that suit him or her personally not collectively. This means that bargains with the employer are usually personal and not collective, whic h is a disadvantage to the employee. The company may flout the previous working arrangement agreed upon and the individual employee may not manage to initiate a legal proceeding against the company. The other disadvantage is that in some instances employees are forced to work for many hours to compensate for the hours they were not working (Morrell, 2011). The last disadvantage of the work arrangements is that most of the times employers do not consult the employees when designing the flexible work arrangements to determine the best kind of flexible work arrangements to suit the employees (Salamon, 2000). Conclusion Discourse on work arrangements is significant to the development of the work conditions. The development of appropriate work conditions allows the employees to work towards the development of their own company as well as their life. For the work arrangement flexibility have effect both the employer and the employee must be in the planning stage such that the arrangement will meet the personal need of the employee as well as benefit the company. Assessing the work flexibility arrangements helps to determine whether the arrangements are effective or not. Evaluating the arrangements is important in ensuring that the arrangement achieves the set objectives. References Atkinson, J. Meager, N. (1986). Changing working patterns: How companies achieve flexibility to meet new needs. London: Institute of Manpower Studies. Befort, F. Budd, W. (2009). Invisible hands, invisible objectives: Bringing workplace law and public policy into focus. New York: Stanford University Press. Bhave, D. Budd, W. (2008). Values, Ideologies, and frames of reference in industrial relations. New York: Sage. Budd, W. (2004). Employment with a human face: Balancing efficiency, equity, and voice. California: Cornell University Press. Fagan, C. (2009). Out of time: Why Australia needs a new approach to working-time flexibility. Sidney: Trade Union Congress. Hyman, R. (1975). Indus trial relations: A Marxist introduction. New York: Macmillan. Kaufman, E. (2004). Theoretical perspectives on work and the employment relationship. Ohio: Industrial Relations Research Association. Kelly, J. (1998). Rethinking industrial relations: Mobilization, collectivism and long waves. New York: Rutledge. Morrell, F. (2011). 90 steps to employee engagement staff motivation. Cincinnati: Forest Gate Publishing. Mullins, L. (2005). Management and organisational behaviour. London: Prentice Hall. Nichols, T. (1997). The sociology of industrial injury. London: Mansell Publishing Limited. Reilly, P. (2001) Flexibility at work: Balancing the interests of employers and employee. Hampshire: Gower Publishing Limited Salamon, M. (2000). Industrial relations: Theory and practice. London: Prentice Hall. Wallace, C. (2003). Work flexibility in eight European countries: A cross-national comparison: Sociological series. Vienna: Institute for Advanced Studies. Webb, B. Webb, s. (1897). Industri al democracy. Chicago: Longmans. This essay on The Role of Flexibility in the Australian Context was written and submitted by user Denise Mckee to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

MCAT Accommodations

MCAT Accommodations When youre interested in applying to medical school, but you happen to need accommodations of some kind, it may seem like you have no recourse when it comes to taking the MCAT. You couldnt be more incorrect. Like on other standardized tests – the SAT, the LSAT, the GRE – accommodations are available for the MCAT, too. The only thing youll be required to do if you believe youre someone who needs MCAT accommodations, is figure out the steps you need to take to secure that type of registration. Thats where this article comes in handy. See below for information regarding the types of MCAT accommodations available and the things you   need to do to secure them for yourself. MCAT Registration FAQs Who Needs MCAT Accommodations? Testers who have a medical condition or disability that necessitates changes to the MCAT testing conditions (or think they have one) should go ahead and apply for an MCAT accommodation. The AAMC lists the following as representative of conditions or disabilities that may qualify you for a testing change. They note, however, that the list is not inclusive, so if you believe you need an MCAT change, you should apply even if your particular disability or condition is not listed below: Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)Anxiety disordersMajor depressionLearning disabilitiesPhysical impairmentsVisual impairmentsCrohns DiseaseDiabetesMobility impairments MCAT Accommodations Available Depending on the need of the individual requesting the accommodation, the AAMC will offer things to help make the MCAT more accessible. The following list is just a sampling of what they can do for you: Large printExtra testing timeA separate testing roomPermission to bring in specific items like an inhaler, water or hard candy into the testing room If you require a testing situation outside one of these accommodations the AAMC is willing to make, youll need to make that clear in your application so they can review your needs and make a determination. MCAT Accommodations Application Process In order to get the ball rolling on securing MCAT accommodations, youll need to complete the following steps. Register for an AAMC ID. Youll use this ID when you register for the MCAT, apply for accommodations, apply to medical school, apply for a residency and more. So, make sure your user ID and password is one that youll remember and wont mind seeing again and again. Register for the MCAT. Youll need to register for a regular MCAT testing seat at first, so you can take the test on the date and time you prefer in case your accommodations request is denied. With dozens of test dates and times to choose from, youll be sure to find one that suits you best. Review the Accommodation Request Time Frames and Types. There are different times you must submit your application based on what youre trying to get approved. Many require 60 days, so do your research! Read the Application Requirements for Your Type of Impairment. There are different procedures to go through based on whether you have a physical impairment thats permanent (diabetes, asthma), an injury (a broken leg) or a learning disability . Every application must include a personalized cover letter that describes your disability and functional impairments along medical documentation and an evaluation provided by the AAMC. Submit your Application. You must – MUST – submit your application for accommodations no later than 60 days before the Silver Zone registration deadline. Whats the Silver Zone Registration? Wait for a Decision! Youll receive a letter via the MCAT Accommodations Online that your request has either been approved or denied. If youve been approved, your next step will be to confirm your seat as an accommodated tester. If youre denied, just show up for your standard testing time. MCAT Accommodations Questions Got a question for the AAMC? You can either contact them via email or mail. E-mail: accommodationsaamc.org Mailing Address AAMCMCAT Office of Accommodated TestingAttn: Saresa Davis, Mailroom Supervisor2450 N Street, NWWashington, DC 20037

The final paper for ukrainian Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The final paper for ukrainian - Essay Example Ukraine hoped to would become a member of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and European Union (EU). However, Ukraine has never fulfilled these expectations. From the year 2000 to the Orange revolution that occurred in 2004, the per capita GDP of Ukraine rose as compared to the GDP of its neighboring countries. The GDP rose from 61% to 68% (DeBardeleben and Crina 67). However, Ukraine’s GPD in 2013 declined precipitously. Notably, Ukraine’s economy was in recession in 2013. This recession has been noted to have increased in 2014 where the economy of Ukraine has experienced a 7% to 10% drop. This abrupt crisis is associated with the falling of average income and decline in the real GDP of Ukraine. The crisis is best evident in the collapse of the Ukrainian currency and the reduction of its foreign currency reserve. Notably, if a country’s currency collapses and there is little foreign exchange reserve obtainable, the crisis will escalate swiftly. However, since the beginning of this year, the Ukrainian currency has dropped by 20% in relative to the US dollar. This means that there is rising inflation for all the imported goods, less investment by businesses located in Ukraine, slower economic growth as less consumption spending by the Ukrainians. The collapse of the currency also means that the Ukrainian central bank has to raise the domestic interest rates. The rise in the domestic interest rates will slow the economy as the domestic investment and consumption decline further. The raising of the rates will decipher into slow direct foreign investment into the country. The collapse of Ukrainian currency is worsened by the loss if foreign currency reserve. Notably, foreign exchange is needed for making payments on bonds to the foreign investors

Yamamoto Recording Media Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Yamamoto Recording Media - Essay Example Under the manufacturing department, capacity constraint combined with scheduled preventive maintenance and other unforeseen factors such as the absence of necessary raw materials can make the production department unable to meet its target schedule (Collins 7). Lack of support from manufacturing staff can also make it impossible for Fazer to meet his plan of cutting down the order-to-delivery cycle (9). With regards to its distribution network, shipping the final product to Yamato Logistics Europe (YLE) for warehousing and dispatching purposes can only add unnecessary expenses to the company. Therefore, YLE staff should be supportive of Fazan’s plan to change its role from warehousing and dispatching to a more responsive logistics and distribution hub in Europe (Collins 10). As a common business practice, the NSC department was made responsible in getting orders directly from customers or retailers which then will be submitted to P/S department for order scheduling and forecast (Collins 7, 9). Because of added work load, NSC staff has been skeptical to change the ordering plan from monthly period to weekly basis (9). On the other hand, unreliable demand forecast coming from the P/S department can also trigger some problems in the company’s inventory level and the company’s ability to fill the market demand (7). In product life cycle, manufacturing companies such as the case of Yamamoto should avoid products that are obsolete because of high levels of inventory.

Mathematical description of OFDM

Mathematical description of OFDM When we talk about the Mathematical description of OFDM then we cannot neglect the following mathematical treatments: The Fourier transform The use of the Fast Fourier Transform in OFDM The guard interval and its implementation As we have discussed above that a large number of narrowband carriers which are spaced close to each other in frequency domain are transmitted by OFDM. The modern digital technique that is used in the OFDM is FFT i-e Fast Fourier transform (FFT) and due to the use of FFT it reduces the number of modulators and demodulators both at the receiver and transmitter side. Fig. 4 Examples of OFDM spectrum (a) a single subchannel, (b) 5 carriers At the central frequency of each subchannel, there is no crosstalk from other subchannels. Mathematically, each carrier can be described as a complex wave: (1) sc(t) = the real part of original signal. Ac(t) = the Amplitude f c(t) = Phase of carrier (t)= symbol duration period Ac(t) and f c(t) use to fluctuate on symbol by symbol basis. Parameter values are constant over (t). As we know that OFDM posses many carriers. So the complex signals ss(t) is represented as: (2) where This is of course a continuous signal. If we consider the waveforms of each component of the signal over one symbol period, then the variables Ac(t) and f c(t) take on fixed values, which depend on the frequency of that particular carrier, and so can be rewritten: If the signal is sampled using a sampling frequency of 1/T, then the resulting signal is represented by: (3) At this point, we have restricted the time over which we analyse the signal to N samples. It is convenient to sample over the period of one data symbol. Thus we have a relationship: t =NT If we now simplify eqn. 3, without a loss of generality by letting w 0=0, then the signal becomes: (4) Now Eq. 4 can be compared with the general form of the inverse Fourier transform: (5) In eq. 4, the function is no more than a definition of the signal in the sampled frequency domain, and s(kT) is the time domain representation. Eqns. 4 and 5 are equivalent if: (6) This is the same condition that was required for orthogonality (see Importance of orthogonality). Thus, one consequence of maintaining orthogonality is that the OFDM signal can be defined by using Fourier transform procedures. The Fourier transform Fourier transform actually relate events in time domain to events in frequency domain. There are different version of FFT which are used according to requirement of different sort of work The conventional transform provide the relation of continuous signals. Note that Continuous signals are not limited in both time and frequency domain. Though, it is better to sample the signal so that the signal processing becomes simpler. But it lead to an aliasing when we sample the signals with infinite spectrum and the processing of signals which are not time limited can lead to another problem that is referred to as space storage. DFT (discrete Fourier transforms) is use to overcome the above problem of signal processing. The original definition of DFT reveals that the time waves have to repeat frequently and similarly frequency spectrum repeat frequently in frequency domain. Basically in DFT the signals can be sampled in time domain as well as in frequency domain. The Fourier transform is the process in which the signal represented in the time domain transformed in frequency domain, while the reverse process uses IFT which is the inverse Fourier transform. The use of the Fast Fourier Transform in OFDM The main reason that the OFDM technique has taken a long time to become a prominence has been practical. It has been difficult to generate such a signal, and even harder to receive and demodulate the signal. The hardware solution, which makes use of multiple modulators and demodulators, was somewhat impractical for use in the civil systems. The ability to define the signal in the frequency domain, in software on VLSI processors, and to generate the signal using the inverse Fourier transform is the key to its current popularity. The use of the reverse process in the receiver is essential if cheap and reliable receivers are to be readily available. Although the original proposals were made a long time ago [Weinstein and Ebert], it has taken some time for technology to catch up. At the transmitter, the signal is defined in the frequency domain. It is a sampled digital signal, and it is defined such that the discrete Fourier spectrum exists only at discrete frequencies. Each OFDM carrier corresponds to one element of this discrete Fourier spectrum. The amplitudes and phases of the carriers depend on the data to be transmitted. The data transitions are synchronised at the carriers, and can be processed together, symbol by symbol (Fig. 5). Fig. 5 Block diagram of an OFDM system using FFT, pilot PN sequence and a guard bit insertion [Zou and Wu] The definition of the (N-point) discrete Fourier transform (DFT) is: (DFT) (7) and the (N-point) inverse discrete Fourier transform (IDFT): (IDFT) (8) A natural consequence of this method is that it allows us to generate carriers that are orthogonal. The members of an orthogonal set are linearly independent. Consider a data sequence (d0, d1, d2, †¦, dN-1), where each dn is a complex number dn=an+jbn. (an, bn= ± 1 for QPSK, an, bn= ± 1,  ± 3 for 16QAM, †¦ ) k=0,1,2, †¦, N-1 (9) where fn=n/(ND T), tk=kD t and D t is an arbitrarily chosen symbol duration of the serial data sequence dn. The real part of the vector D has components k=0,1,..,N-1 (10) If these components are applied to a low-pass filter at time intervals D t, a signal is obtained that closely approximates the frequency division multiplexed signal (11) Fig. 5 illustrates the process of a typical FFT-based OFDM system. The incoming serial data is first converted form serial to parallel and grouped into x bits each to form a complex number. The number x determines the signal constellation of the corresponding subcarrier, such as 16 QAM or 32QAM. The complex numbers are modulated in a baseband fashion by the inverse FFT (IFFT) and converted back to serial data for transmission. A guard interval is inserted between symbols to avoid intersymbol interference (ISI) caused by multipath distortion. The discrete symbols are converted to analog and low-pass filtered for RF upconversion. The receiver performs the inverse process of the transmitter. One-tap equalizer is used to correct channel distortion. The tap-coefficients of the filter are calculated based on the channel information. Fig. 6 Example of the power spectral density of the OFDM signal with a guard interval D = TS/4 (number of carriers N=32) [Alard and Lassalle] Fig 4a shows the spectrum of an OFDM subchannel and Fig. 4b and Fig. 6 present composite OFDM spectrum. By carefully selecting the carrier spacing, the OFDM signal spectrum can be made flat and the orthogonality among the subchannels can be guaranteed. The guard interval and its implementation The orthogonality of subchannels in OFDM can be maintained and individual subchannels can be completely separated by the FFT at the receiver when there are no intersymbol interference (ISI) and intercarrier interference (ICI) introduced by transmission channel distortion. In practice these conditions can not be obtained. Since the spectra of an OFDM signal is not strictly band limited (sinc(f) function), linear distortion such as multipath cause each subchannel to spread energy into the adjacent channels and consequently cause ISI. A simple solution is to increase symbol duration or the number of carriers so that distortion becomes insignificant. However, this method may be difficult to implement in terms of carrier stability, Doppler shift, FFT size and latency. Fig. 7 The effect on the timing tolerance of adding a guard interval. With a guard interval included in the signal, the tolerance on timing the samples is considerably more relaxed. Fig. 8 Example of the guard interval. Each symbol is made up of two parts. The whole signal is contained in the active symbol (shown highlighted for the symbol M) The last part of which (shown in bold) is also repeated at the start of the symbol and is called the guard interval One way to prevent ISI is to create a cyclically extended guard interval (Fig. 7, 8), where each OFDM symbol is preceded by a periodic extension of the signal itself. The total symbol duration is Ttotal=Tg+T, where Tg is the guard interval and T is the useful symbol duration. When the guard interval is longer than the channel impulse response (Fig. 3), or the multipath delay, the ISI can be eliminated. However, the ICI, or in-band fading, still exists. The ratio of the guard interval to useful symbol duration is application-dependent. Since the insertion of guard interval will reduce data throughput, Tg is usually less than T/4. The reasons to use a cyclic prefix for the guard interval are: to maintain the receiver carrier synchronization ; some signals instead of a long silence must always be transmitted; cyclic convolution can still be applied between the OFDM signal and the channel response to model the transmission system. http://www.wirelesscommunication.nl/reference/chaptr05/ofdm/ofdmqual.htm Multipath Challenges In an OFDM-based WLAN architecture, as well as many other wireless systems, multipath distortion is a key challenge. This distortion occurs at a receiver when objects in the environment reflect a part of the transmitted signal energy. Figure 2 illustrates one such multipath scenario from a WLAN environment. Figure 2: Multipath reflections, such as those shown here, create ISI problems in OFDM receiver designs. Click here for larger version of Figure 1b Multipath reflected signals arrive at the receiver with different amplitudes, different phases, and different time delays. Depending on the relative phase change between reflected paths, individual frequency components will add constructively and destructively. Consequently, a filter representing the multipath channel shapes the frequency domain of the received signal. In other words, the receiver may see some frequencies in the transmitted signal that are attenuated and others that have a relative gain. In the time domain, the receiver sees multiple copies of the signal with different time delays. The time difference between two paths often means that different symbols will overlap or smear into each other and create inter-symbol interference (ISI). Thus, designers building WLAN architectures must deal with distortion in the demodulator. Recall that OFDM relies on multiple narrowband subcarriers. In multipath environments, the subcarriers located at frequencies attenuated by multipath will be received with lower signal strength. The lower signal strength leads to an increased error rate for the bits transmitted on these weakened subcarriers. Fortunately for most multipath environments, this only affects a small number of subcarriers and therefore only increases the error rate on a portion of the transmitted data stream. Furthermore, the robustness of OFDM in multipath can be dramatically improved with interleaving and error correction coding. Lets look at error correction and interleaving in more detail. Error Correction and Interleaving Error correcting coding builds redundancy into the transmitted data stream. This redundancy allows bits that are in error or even missing to be corrected. The simplest example would be to simply repeat the information bits. This is known as a repetition code and, while the repetition code is simple in structure, more sophisticated forms of redundancy are typically used since they can achieve a higher level of error correction. For OFDM, error correction coding means that a portion of each information bit is carried on a number of subcarriers; thus, if any of these subcarriers has been weakened, the information bit can still arrive intact. Interleaving is the other mechanism used in OFDM system to combat the increased error rate on the weakened subcarriers. Interleaving is a deterministic process that changes the order of transmitted bits. For OFDM systems, this means that bits that were adjacent in time are transmitted on subcarriers that are spaced out in frequency. Thus errors generated on weakened subcarriers are spread out in time, i.e. a few long bursts of errors are converted into many short bursts. Error correcting codes then correct the resulting short bursts of errors. OR for guard interval Handling ISI The time-domain counter part of the multipath is the ISI or smearing of one symbol into the next. OFDM gracefully handles this type of multipath distortion by adding a guard interval to each symbol. This guard interval is typically a cyclic or periodic extension of the basic OFDM symbol. In other words, it looks like the rest of the symbol, but conveys no new information. Since no new information is conveyed, the receiver can ignore the guard interval and still be able to separate and decode the subcarriers. When the guard interval is designed to be longer than any smearing due to the multipath channel, the receiver is able to eliminate ISI distortion by discarding the unneeded guard interval. Hence, ISI is removed with virtually no added receiver complexity. It is important to note that discarding the guard interval does have an impact on the noise performance since it reduces the amount of energy available at the receiver for channel symbol decoding. In addition, it reduces the data rate since no new information is contained in the added guard interval. Thus a good system design will make the guard interval as short as possible while maintaining sufficient multipath protection. Why dont single carrier systems also use a guard interval? Single carrier systems could remove ISI by adding a guard interval between each symbol. However, this has a much more severe impact on the data rate for single carrier systems than it does for OFDM. Since OFDM uses a bundle of narrowband subcarriers, it obtains high data rates with a relatively long symbol period because the frequency width of the subcarrier is inversely proportional to the symbol duration. Consequently, adding a short guard interval has little impact on the data rate. Single carrier systems with bandwidths equivalent to OFDM must use much shorter duration symbols. Hence adding a guard interval equal to the channel smearing has a much greater impact on data rate. http://www.commsdesign.com/design_corner/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=16504605 As we know that cyclic prefix is used to restore the orthogonality and preserve ISI, but the question that arises is that how the orthogonality destroyed between the subcarriers and how cyclic prefix restore the orthogonality. [1] [2] The orthogonality between subcarriers is destroyed due to the channel dispersion whenever the signal is transmitted over a channel and this cause ICI and due to the longer delay ISI occur among the OFDM symbols which are in sequence. [1] Further more there is no any interference in uncorrupted OFDM signal when they are demodulated but when we talk about the time dispersive channel the OFDM subcarriers lost there orthogonality. The main cause behind this is that the demodulator correlation interval for one path will overlap with the symbol boundary of a different path as show in the figure [ ] [ 2] Fig. 4.11 16QAM constellation We will see that this makes equalization in the receiver very simple. If multipath exceeds the CP, then constellation points in the modulation is distorted. As can be seen from Fig. 4.11, when multipath delay exceeds the CP, the subcarriers are not guaranteed to be orthogonal anymore, since modulation points may fall into anywhere in the respective contour. As delay spread gets more severe, the radius of the contour enlarges and crosses the other contours. Hence, this causes error. The CP is utilized in the guard period between successive blocks and constructed by the cyclic extension of the OFDM symbol over a period Ï„ : (4.3) The required criteria is that Ï„ is chosen bigger than channel length Ï„h so as not to experience an ISI. The CP requires more transmit energy and reduces the bit rate to (Nb/NT +Ï„ ), where b is the bits that a subcarrier can transmit. The CP converts a discrete time linear convolution into a discrete time circular convolution. Thus, transmitted data can be modeled as a circular convolution between the channel impulse response and the transmitted data block, which in the frequency domain is a pointwise multiplication of DFT samples. Then received signal becomes Where (4.5) Hence, kth subcarrier now has a channel component Hk, which is the fourier transform of h(t) at the frequency fk. The OFDM symbol is sampled (t = nT and fk = k/NT) in the receiver and demodulated with an FFT. Consequently, the received data has the following form yk = Hk xk, k = 0, . . . ,N −1. (4.6) The received actual data can be retrieved with N parallel one-tap equalizers. One-tap equalizer simply uses the estimated channel ( ˆHk) components and use it to retrieve estimated ˆ xk as follows (4.7) Also note that the spectrum of OFDM decays slowly. This causes spectrum leakage to neighboring bands. Pulse shaping is used to change the spectral shape by either commonly used raised cosine time window or passing through a filter. An OFDM system design considers setting the guard interval (Ï„ ) as well as the symbol time (T) and FFT size with respect to desired bit rate B and given tolerable delay spread. The guard interval is selected according to delay spread, and typically it is 2–4 times the root-mean-squared delay spread with respect to chosen coding and modulation. Symbol time is set with respect to guard time and it is desirable to select much larger than the guard time since the loss in SNR in the guard time is compensated. Symbol time as we know determines the subcarrier spacing ( fb = 1/T). Number of subcarriers N is found with respect to desired bit rate, since total number of bits (bT ) to carry in one symbol is found with B/(T +Ï„ ) and selected coding and modulation determines the number of bits (b) in one subcarrier. Hence, the number of subcarriers is N = bT /b. For instance, b is two for 16QAM with rate 1/2. The required bandwidth (W) is then N âˆâ€" fb. Alternatively, this method is reversed to find out the symbol time starting from the given bandwidth. OR Cyclic-prefix insertion As I m talking about the time dispersive channel I want to include that in time dispersive channel the subcarrier not only have inter symbol interference within them but they also posses interference between them. As we know that in case of time dispersive channel the frequency-selective channel frequency response is equivalent to time dispersion on the radio channel. There are two reasons of orthogonality between OFDM subcarriers. Due to frequency-domain separation. The specific frequency-domain structure of each subcarrier. Even if the frequency-domain channel is constant over a bandwidth corresponding to the main lobe of an OFDM subcarrier and only the subcarrier side lobes are corrupted due to the radio-channel frequency selectivity, the orthogonality between subcarriers will be lost with inter-subcarrier interference as a consequence. Due to the relatively large side lobes of each OFDM subcarrier, already a relatively limited amount of time dispersion or, equivalently, a relatively modest radio-channel frequency selectivity may cause non-negligible interference between subcarriers. Time dispersion and corresponding received-signal timing Figure 9 Time dispersion and corresponding received-signal timing. To deal with this problem and to make an OFDM signal truly insensitive to time dispersion on the radio channel, so-called cyclic-prefix insertion is typically used in case of OFDM transmission. As illustrated in Figure 10, cyclic-prefix insertion implies that the last part of the OFDM symbol is copied and inserted at the beginning of the OFDM symbol. Cyclic-prefix insertion thus increases the length of the OFDM symbol from Tu to Tu +TCP, where TCP is the length of the cyclic prefix, with a corresponding reduction in the OFDM symbol rate as a consequence. As illustrated in the lower part of Figure 10, if the correlation at the receiver side is still only carried out over a time interval Tu =1/∆f , subcarrier orthogonality will then be preserved also in case of a time-dispersive channel, as long as the span of the time dispersion is shorter than the cyclic-prefix length. Cyclic-prefix insertion Figure 10. Cyclic-prefix insertion Cyclic-prefix insertion is beneficial in the sense that it makes an OFDM signal insensitive to time dispersion as long as the span of the time dispersion does not exceed the length of the cyclic prefix. The drawback of cyclic-prefix insertion is that only a fraction Tu /( Tu +TCP) of the received signal power is actually utilized by the OFDM demodulator, implying a corresponding power loss in the demodulation. In addition to this power loss, cyclic-prefix insertion also implies a corresponding loss in terms of bandwidth as the OFDM symbol rate is reduced without a corresponding reduction in the overall signal bandwidth. One way to reduce the relative overhead due to cyclic-prefix insertion is to reduce the subcarrier spacing ∆f , with a corresponding increase in the symbol time Tu as a consequence. http://wirelesscafe.wordpress.com/2009/04/20/ofdm-as-downlink-transmission-scheme-for-lte/